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Dhakal (2007) revealed different types of labor arrangement practices of Nepali




society. These are Parma (reciprocal exchange), gwahar (voluntary help), jhyala




nemek (paid labor), attached labor (haliya system, residents’ farm servants, non- residence farm servants, and yearly contact tenant labor), patron client arrangement




(jajamani system, bista system, bali system). These labor arrangement systems are




specific to the particular communities but the parma system is practiced thorough out




the country.




Shifting cultivators form groups to work together in labor sharing and working in a




group makes the work enjoyable and productive (Aryal, Kerchoff, Maskey and




Sherchan, 2010). Shrestha (2010) brings out the labor arrangement system in




Rajbanshi community in Dhimal community of Jhapa district. Ishii (1982) also




discusses about the agricultural labor recruitment system practiced in Gandaki area of




Nepal. Fortier (1993) highlights the patterns of labor relations such as plowing, hiring




hands, wage labor, hiring wage laborers and migrating for labor prevailing in Western




Nepal. Seddon et al. (2002) discuss different labor types existing in our country from




Marxist point of view. He highlights porters, agricultural labors, highway construction




labor, and urban labor force prevailing in west central Nepal.




Despite the some studies on various aspect of shifting cultivation they studies hardly




consider the practice of shifting cultivation as integrated and equilibrated farming




practice to the local people way of life. Using anthropological tools and techniques




researches on labor organization aspect of Khoriya kheti are not carried out in the




context of Nepal.




2.2 Approaches on Shifting Cultivation




“From an anthropological perspective, two general points of view can be made about




shifting cultivation. First, the normative view which focuses on the negative aspects




of shifting cultivation: low productivity, extensive land requirement, and unwanted




environmental effects. And second, the view of shifting cultivation as a rational




response to the prevailing ecological and cultural conditions...” (Sandsurkt: n.d. cited
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