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After the 1930s, the determinism theory was replaced by possiblism after the work of

Franz Boaz. Possibilism states that origin of specific cultural features or patterns are

generally found in historical tradition rather than in environment. Environment could

permit certain unique cultural phenomena but it is only not one that totally alters or

modifies the whole nature of specific culture.

The third approach, cultural ecology, recognizes that environment and culture are not

separate spheres but are involved in dialectical interplay. There is cause and effect

relationship between culture and environment as one influences the other. Julian

Steward regards the ecology/environment as an important causal factor behind social

institutions and all aspects of culture equally interact with the local environment

(Hardesty, 1977). Next human ecological approach is ‘ethno-ecology’ and it refers to

any such study done from group’s own point of view. The term ethno-ecology is

explicated by Conklin (1954) and Frake (1962a) and Rappoport (1963) proposes the

similar concept in his ‘cognized environment’ (Ibid).

Although Steward regards the ecology as important causal factor behind social

institutions, he is clear that not all features of culture can be explained in terms of

ecological adaptation. He distinguishes between the cultural core, the constellation of

features that are most closely related to subsistence activities and economic

arrangement such as political organization (Steward 1955:37, as cited in Hatch, 1977).

Ecological model helps the researchers to examine the interrelationship of

environment and culture (Molnar, 1981). Anthropological explanation of environment

with human behavior is ecological anthropology, which consists of the relationship

between socio-cultural systems and environment by the means of technological and a

social organizational adaptation.

According to Steward “the principal meaning of ecology is ‘adaptation to

environment’” Steward, 1955:30 as cited in Hatch, 1973:114). “[Human being] enter

the ecological scenes....not merely as another organization which is related to other

organism in terms of his physical characteristics. He introduces the super organic

factor of culture...”(Ibid). Man’s adaptation is achieved largely by means of culture.

“Cultural ecology is the study of the adjustment or relationship of culture to the

natural environment, and two distinct orders of phenomena are involved: the features

of the environment itself, and the cultural arrangements by which the environment is

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